The arrival of Vasco da Gama on the western coast of India, near Calicut, on 27 May 1498, heralded the restoration of Europe’s links with the subcontinent after an interval of almost eight centuries. With his landing, India became accessible to Portuguese conquistadors, traders, travellers, scholars and clergymen. The sixteenth century could, in a sense, be termed the Portuguese century, for no European power could challenge its mastery of the sea route to India.

The defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 by Holland and England, however, signaled the end of this monopoly and in 1595, the first Dutch fleet entered the Indian Ocean. In the seventeenth century, the Dutch, with their British camp followers, seriously undermined the Portuguese. The French also entered the Indian trade in the second half of this century.

While several Portuguese accounts of India in the sixteenth century are available, for the seventeenth century, we also have the writings of travellers, scholars and missionaries from the latter three countries. Additionally, Jesuits of various nationalities wrote regular letters to home, providing valuable information on facets of Indian life, albeit tempered by their religious bias.

This volume confines itself to European writings of sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. It does not claim to be exhaustive but presents glimpses of the Indian reality as recorded by contemporary European visitors. Only English translations have been used. A sizeable number of accounts in European languages still await translation.

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CONTENTS

Publisher’s Note — Pgs. v

Introduction — Pgs. vii

Select List of Travellers — Pgs. xv

Select List of Travellers and Writers — Pgs. xvii

Chapter 1

Nature’s Bounty — Pgs. 1

A. Flora — Pgs. 1

B. Wealth of India — Pgs. 5

C. Precious metals and stones — Pgs. 16

D. Fauna — Pgs. 17

Chapter 2

People — Pgs. 21

A. Description of people — Pgs. 21

B. Glimpses of society — Pgs. 25

C. Dwellings — Pgs. 29

D. Dress — Pgs. 30

E. Cleanliness — Pgs. 37

F. Food Habits — Pgs. 38

G. Betel Eating — Pgs. 44

H. Economic disparities — Pgs. 44

I. Funeral Rites — Pgs. 50

Chapter 3

Festivals and Fairs — Pgs. 55

A. Festivals — Pgs. 55

B. Fairs — Pgs. 67

C. Entertainment and Games — Pgs. 68

Chapter 4

Economic Life — Pgs. 71

A. Textiles — Pgs. 71

B. Some famous arts and crafts of India — Pgs. 74

C. Indigo, saltpetre, gum lac, wax, long pepper — Pgs. 78

D. Some drugs prepared in India, Francisco Pelsaert — Pgs. 80

E. Diamond industry — Pgs. 81

F. Towns and Bazaars — Pgs. 84

G. Ports and Trade — Pgs. 89

Chapter 5 

Architecture — Pgs. 95

A. Temples and Caves — Pgs. 95

B. Tanks and Lakes — Pgs. 107

C. Forts and Palaces — Pgs. 110

D. Town Planning — Pgs. 118

E. Mosques — Pgs. 119

F. Mausoleums — Pgs. 120

Chapter 6

Language, Literature and Education — Pgs. 123

A. Languages — Pgs. 123

B. Education — Pgs. 124

C. Manuscripts — Pgs. 127

Chapter 7

Religion and philosophy — Pgs. 129

A. Cosmology and Symbology — Pgs. 129

B. Philosophy — Pgs. 132

C. Transmigration of souls — Pgs. 133

D. Unanimity on matters of faith — Pgs. 135

E. No interest in conversion — Pgs. 135

F. Yogis and Vratis — Pgs. 137

Chapter 8

Religion in Practice — Pgs. 147

A. Theory of incarnation — Pgs. 147

B. Importance of image worship — Pgs. 149

C. Some important pilgrimage centres — Pgs. 150

D. Worship at other sites — Pgs. 162

E. Worship of trees and animals — Pgs. 176

F. Ahimsa, love for animals — Pgs. 180

G. Ritual Bathing, Eclipses — Pgs. 183

Chapter 9

Sciences — Pgs. 189

A. Astronomy and Time-reckoning — Pgs. 189

B. Diseases and Cures — Pgs. 191

C. Hindu Physicians — Pgs. 194

D. Drugs and stones used for cure — Pgs. 197

Chapter 10

Social Organisation — Pgs. 201

A. Varna and Caste — Pgs. 201

B. Brahmins — Pgs. 205

C. Rajputs, Kshatriyas, Nairs — Pgs. 217

D. Baniyas — Pgs. 219

E. Shudras — Pgs. 223

F. Untouchables — Pgs. 223

Chapter 11

Women — Pgs. 227

A. Four sorts of women — Pgs. 227

B. Women force in Vijayanagar — Pgs. 228

C. Women Rulers — Pgs. 229

D. Marriage — Pgs. 234

E. Hindu Wives — Pgs. 244

F. Widows — Pgs. 246

G. Sati — Pgs. 247

H. Devadasis — Pgs. 260

Chapter 12

Hindu Kingdoms and Rulers — Pgs. 263

A. Vijayanagar — Pgs. 263

B. The Zamorin of Calicut — Pgs. 290

C. Shivaji — Pgs. 292

Chapter 13

Jews and Parsees — Pgs. 305

A. Jews — Pgs. 305

B. Parsees — Pgs. 307

Chapter 14

Christianity — Pgs. 311

A. State of Christianity in India — Pgs. 311

B. Conversions — Pgs. 319

C. Marriage ceremonies — Pgs. 328

Chapter 15

Islam and Muslims — Pgs. 331

A. Muslim communities — Pgs. 331

B. Festivals — Pgs. 333

C. Marriage customs — Pgs. 336

D. Royal harems — Pgs. 339

E. Pilgrimages and Pirs — Pgs. 342

F. A Muslim view of how European nations differ — Pgs. 345

Chapter 16

Mughals In India — Pgs. 347

A. Mughal Emperors — Pgs. 347

B. Mughal Polity — Pgs. 366

C. Mughal Thrones — Pgs. 368

D. The Emperors’ Jewels — Pgs. 370

E. Mughal Princesses — Pgs. 373

F. Mughal Forces — Pgs. 374

References — Pgs. 377

Select Bibliography — Pgs. 391

Index — Pgs. 395

Meenakshi Jain is an associate professor of History at Gargi College, University of Delhi. She was Fellow, Nehru Memorial Museum & Library, Teen Murti. Her recent works include Parallel Pathways. Essays on Hindu-Muslim Relations (1707-1857). She is the co-author of The Rajah Moonje Pact. Documents on a Forgotten Chapter of Indian History.